{"id":4514,"date":"2017-11-09T12:42:37","date_gmt":"2017-11-09T09:42:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/?p=4514"},"modified":"2017-11-09T12:42:37","modified_gmt":"2017-11-09T09:42:37","slug":"texts-witnessed-only-in-the-septuagint-maccabees-1-2-3-and-4","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/4514\/texts-witnessed-only-in-the-septuagint-maccabees-1-2-3-and-4\/","title":{"rendered":"Texts witnessed only in the Septuagint: Maccabees 1, 2, 3 and 4"},"content":{"rendered":"

Texts witnessed only in the Septuagint: Table of Contents<\/a><\/p>\n

[Edited by Ellopos<\/a> from Wikipedia articles.]<\/em><\/p>\n

1 Maccabees<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n

The original Hebrew of this book is lost and the most important surviving version is the Greek translation contained in the Septuagint<\/a>. The book is held as canonical scripture by the Catholic, Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches (except for the Orthodox Tewahedo), but not by Anglican and Protestant denominations. In modern-day Judaism, the book is often considered to be of great historical interest, but has no official religious status.<\/p>\n

The setting of the book is about a century and a half after the conquest of Judea by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, after Alexander’s empire has been divided so that Judea was part of the Greek Seleucid Empire. It tells how the Greek ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to suppress the practice of basic Jewish law, resulting in the Maccabean Revolt (a Jewish revolt against Seleucid rule). The book covers the whole of the revolt, from 175 to 134 BC, highlighting how the salvation of the Jewish people in this crisis came through Mattathias’ family, particularly his sons, Judas Maccabeus, Jonathan Apphus, and Simon Thassi, and Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus. The doctrine expressed in the book reflects traditional Jewish teaching, without later doctrines found, for example, in 2 Maccabees. The First Book of Maccabees also gives a list of Jewish colonies scattered elsewhere through the Mediterranean at the time.<\/p>\n

In the first chapter, Alexander the Great conquers the territory of Judea, only to be eventually succeeded by the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes. After successfully invading the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, Antiochus IV captures Jerusalem and removes the sacred objects from the Temple in Jerusalem, slaughtering many Jews. He then imposes a tax and establishes a fortress in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n

Antiochus then tries to suppress public observance of Jewish laws, in an attempt to secure control over the Jews. In 168 BC, he desecrates the Temple by setting up an “abomination of desolation” (that is, establishing rites of pagan observance in the Temple, or sacrificing an unclean animal on the altar in the Holy of Holies). Antiochus forbids both circumcision and possession of Jewish scriptures on pain of death. He forbids observance of the sabbath and the offering of sacrifices at the Temple. He also requires Jewish leaders to sacrifice to idols. While enforcement may be targeting only Jewish leaders, ordinary Jews were also killed as a warning to others.<\/p>\n

Hellenization included the construction of gymnasiums in Jerusalem. Among other effects, this discouraged the Jewish rite of circumcision even further, which had already been officially forbidden; a man’s state could not be concealed in the gymnasium, where men trained and socialized in the nude. But 1 Maccabees also insists that there were many Jews who sought out or welcomed the introduction of Greek culture. According to the text, some Jewish men even engaged in foreskin restoration in order to pass as fully Greek.<\/p>\n

Mattathias calls upon people loyal to the traditions of Israel to oppose the invaders and the Jewish Hellenizers, and his three sons begin a military campaign against them (the Maccabean Revolt). There is one complete loss of a thousand Jews (men, women and children) to Antiochus when the Jewish defenders refuse to fight on the Sabbath. The other Jews then reason that, when attacked, they must fight even on the holy day. In 165 BC the Temple is freed and reconsecrated, so that ritual sacrifices may begin again. The festival of Hanukkah is instituted by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers to celebrate this event (1 Macc. 4:59). Judas seeks an alliance with the Roman Republic to remove the Greeks. He is succeeded by his brother Jonathan, who becomes high priest and also seeks alliance with Rome and confirms alliance with Areus of Sparta (1 Macc. 12:1\u201323). Simon follows them, receiving the double office of high priest and prince of Israel. (Simon and his successors form the Hasmonean dynasty, which is not always considered a valid kingship by the Jews, since they were not of the lineage of David.) Simon leads the people in peace and prosperity, until he is murdered by agents of Ptolemy, son of Abubus, who had been named governor of the region by the Macedonian Greeks. He is succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus.<\/p>\n

The name Maccabee in Hebrew, means “hammer”. This is properly applied to the first leader of the revolt, Judas, third son of Mattathias, whose attacks were “hammer-like”. The name came to be used for his brothers as well, which accounts for the title of the book. The Name “Maccabee” can also be derived from the first letters of each word \u05de\u05d9 \u05db\u05de\u05d5\u05db\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd \u05d9’\u05d4 “Who is like You from amongst the mighty, the LORD?” (Mem, Kaf, Bet, Yud). This Hebrew verse is taken from Exodus 15:11.<\/p>\n

The narrative is primarily prose text, but is interrupted by seven poetic sections, which imitate classical Hebrew poetry. These include four laments and three hymns of praise.<\/p>\n

The text comes to us in three codices of the Septuagint<\/a>: the Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Venetus, as well as some cursives.<\/p>\n

Though the original book was written in Hebrew, as can be deduced by a number of Hebrew idioms in the text, the original has been lost and the version which comes down to us is the Septuagint<\/a>. Some authors date the original Hebrew text even closer to the events covered, while a few suggest a later date. Because of the accuracy of the historical account, if the later date is taken, the author would have to have had access to first-hand reports of the events or other primary sources.<\/p>\n

Origen of Alexandria gives testimony to the existence of an original Hebrew text. Jerome likewise claims “the first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style” (per Prologus Galeatus). Many scholars suggest that they may have actually had access to a Biblical Aramaic paraphrase of the work\u2014but one should be aware of a “creeping Aramaicism”, finding evidence for a vaguely Aramaic text when there is nothing definite to point to.<\/p>\n

Only the Greek text has survived, and this only through its inclusion in the Christian canon. Origen claims that the title of the original was Sarb\u0113th Sarbanael (variants include \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b7\u03b8 \u03a3\u03b1[\u03c1]\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u03bb “Sarb\u0113th Sa[r]banai El” and \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b7\u03b8 \u03a3\u03b1[\u03c1]\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03b5\u03bb Sarb\u0113th Sa[r]baneel), an enigmatic Greek transliteration from a putative Hebrew original. Various reconstructions have been proposed:<\/p>\n

“Book of the Prince of the House of Israel” or “the Prince of the House of God (El)”, from the Hebrew \u05e9\u05b7\u05c2\u05e8 \u05d1\u05b5\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc, Sar Beit-Yisra’el or \u05e9\u05b7\u05c2\u05e8 \u05d1\u05b5\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc, Sar Beit-El, respectively,
\n“History of the House of the Warriors”,
\n“Book of the House of the Princes of God”,
\n“the Book of the Dynasty of God’s resisters”, perhaps from \u05e1\u05b5\u05e4\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d1\u05b5\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea \u05e1\u05b8\u05e8\u05b0\u05d1\u05b8\u05e0\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc, Sefer Beit Sarevanei El (“Book of the House who strive for God”).<\/p>\n

Gustaf Dalman, meanwhile, suggests that the title is a corruption of the Aramaic “The Book of the House of the Hasmoneans”.<\/p>\n

The book’s author is unknown, but some suggest that it may have been a devout Jew from the Holy Land who may have taken part in the events described in the book. He shows intimate and detailed geographical knowledge of the Holy Land, but is inaccurate in his information about foreign countries. The author interprets the events not as a miraculous intervention by God, but rather God’s using the instrument of the military genius of the Maccabees to achieve his ends.<\/p>\n

__<\/p>\n

2 Maccabees<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n

2 Maccabees is a deuterocanonical book which focuses on the Maccabean Revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes and concludes with the defeat of the Syrian general Nicanor in 161 BC by Judas Maccabeus, the hero of the hard work.<\/p>\n

Unlike 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees was written originally in Greek, probably in Alexandria, Egypt, c 124 BC. It presents a revised version of the historical events recounted in the first seven chapters of 1 Maccabees, adding material from the Pharisaic tradition, including prayer for the dead and a resurrection on Judgment Day.<\/p>\n

Catholics and Orthodox consider the work to be canonical and part of the Bible. Protestants and Jews reject most of the doctrinal issues present in the work. Some Protestants include 2 Maccabees as part of the Biblical Apocrypha, useful for reading in the church. Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England defines it as useful but not the basis of doctrine and not necessary for salvation.<\/p>\n

The author of 2 Maccabees is not identified, but he claims to be abridging a 5-volume work by Jason of Cyrene. This longer work is not preserved, and it is uncertain how much of the present text of 2 Maccabees is simply copied from that work. The author wrote in Greek, apparently, as there is no particular evidence of an earlier Hebrew version. A few sections of the book, such as the Preface, Epilogue, and some reflections on morality are generally assumed to come from the author, not from Jason. Jason’s work was apparently written sometime around 100 BC and most likely ended with the defeat of Nicanor, as does the abridgement available to us.<\/p>\n

The beginning of the book includes two letters sent by Jews in Jerusalem to Jews of the Diaspora in Egypt concerning the feast day set up to celebrate the purification of the temple (see Hanukkah) and the feast to celebrate the defeat of Nicanor. If the author of the book inserted these letters, the book would have to have been written after 124 BC the date of the second letter. Some commentators hold that these letters were a later addition, while others consider them the basis for the work. Catholic scholars tend toward a dating in the last years of the 2nd century BC, while the consensus among Jewish scholars place it in the second half of the 1st century BC.
\nContents<\/p>\n

Unlike 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees does not attempt to provide a complete account of the events of the period, instead covering only the period from the high priest Onias III and King Seleucus IV (180 BC) to the defeat of Nicanor in 161.<\/p>\n

In general, the chronology of the book coheres with that of 1 Maccabees, and it has some historical value in supplementing 1 Maccabees, principally in providing a few apparently authentic historical documents. The author seems primarily interested in providing a theological interpretation of the events; in this book God’s interventions direct the course of events, punishing the wicked and restoring the Temple to his people. It has been suggested that some events appear to be presented out of strict chronological order to make theological points, but there seems little reason to expect a sequential chronology anyway, and little evidence for demonstrating the point one way or the other. Some of the numbers cited for sizes of armies may also appear exaggerated, though not all of the manuscripts of this book agree.<\/p>\n

The Greek style of the writer is very educated, and he seems well-informed about Greek customs. The action follows a very simple plan: after the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple is instituted. The newly dedicated Temple is threatened by Nicanor, and after his death, the festivities for the dedication are concluded. A special day is dedicated to commemorate the Jewish victory called “Adar” and each year it is celebrated two days before “Mordecai Day”.
\nDoctrine<\/p>\n

2 Maccabees demonstrates several points of doctrinal interpretation deriving from Pharisaic Judaism, and also found in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theology.<\/p>\n

Doctrinal issues that are raised in 2 Maccabees include:<\/p>\n

Prayer for the dead and sacrificial offerings, both to free the dead from sin<\/em>
\n Merits of the martyrs<\/em>
\n Intercession of the saints (15:11\u201317) (at least as seen from a Christian viewpoint); the New American Bible comments on verse 14 “Jeremiah\u2019s prayer in heaven has been taken in the Roman Catholic tradition as a biblical witness to the intercession of the saints”<\/em>
\n Resurrection of the dead<\/em>
\n Specific mention of creation ex nihilo (II Maccabees 7:28)<\/em><\/p>\n

In particular, the long descriptions of the martyrdoms of Eleazar and of a mother with her seven sons (2 Macc 6:18\u20137:42) caught the imagination of medieval Christians. Several churches are dedicated to the “Maccabeean martyrs”, and they are among the few pre-Christian figures to appear on the Catholic calendar of saints’ days (that number is considerably higher in the Eastern Orthodox churches’ calendars, where they also appear). The book is considered the first model of the medieval stories of the martyrs.<\/p>\n

Catholic apologist Jimmy Akin examines Hebrews 11:35 (“Some were tortured, refusing to accept release, that they might rise again to a better life”) and notes that this hope of eternal life after torture is not found anywhere in the Protocanonicals of the Old Testament, but is found in 2 Maccabees 7.<\/p>\n

Catholics and Orthodox regard 2 Maccabees as canonical. Jews and Protestants do not. 1 and 2 Maccabees appear in manuscripts of the Septuagint<\/a> along with (in some copies) 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm 151. The Codex Vaticanus lacks 1 and 2 Maccabees (but includes 1 Esdras) which Codex Sinaiticus includes along with 4 Maccabees (but omits Baruch), which evidences a lack of uniformity in the lists of books in early manuscripts of the Septuagint<\/a>. Neither 1st nor 2nd Maccabees were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n

In Jamnia c 90, according to one theory now largely discredited, rabbis endorsed a narrower canon, excluding deuterocanonical works such as 2 Maccabees. This had little immediate impact on Christians, however, since most Christians did not know Hebrew and were familiar with the Hebrew Bible through the Greek Septuagint<\/a> text from hellenistic Jews, although some researchers believe that under Christian auspices the books known to Protestants and Jews as apocryphal and to Roman Catholics as deuterocanonical were added to the Septuagint<\/a>. In addition, the canonical status of deuterocanonical books was disputed among some notable scholars from early on and into the Council of Trent, which first definitively settled the matter of the OT Canon on 8 April 1546, after the death of Martin Luther.<\/p>\n

Although 2 Maccabees was included by Luther and other early reformers in their Bibles, they were rejected as being on the same level as canonical writings. Martin Luther said: “I am so great an enemy to the second book of the Maccabees, and to Esther, that I wish they had not come to us at all, for they have too many heathen unnaturalities.”<\/p>\n

Other evangelical writers have been more positive towards the book: twentieth century author James B. Jordan, for example, argues that while 1 Maccabees “was written to try and show the Maccabean usurpers as true heirs of David and as true High Priests” and is a “wicked book,” a “far more accurate picture of the situation is given in 2 Maccabees.”<\/p>\n

__<\/p>\n

3 Maccabees<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n

The book of 3 Maccabees is found in most Orthodox Bibles as a part of the Anagignoskomena, while Protestants and Roman Catholics consider it non-canonical, except the Moravian Brethren who included it in the Apocrypha of the Czech Kralicka Bible. It is also included in the Armenian Bible.<\/p>\n

Despite the title, the book has nothing to do with the Maccabees or their revolt against the Seleucid Empire, as described in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees. Instead it tells the story of persecution of the Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222\u2013205 BC), some decades before the Maccabee uprising. The name of the book apparently comes from the similarities between this book and the stories of the martyrdom of Eleazar and the Maccabeean youths in 2 Maccabees; the High Priest Shimon is also mentioned.<\/p>\n

The contents of the book have a legendary character, which scholars have not been able to tie to proven historical events, and it has all the appearances of a romance. According to the book, after Ptolemy’s defeat of Antiochus III in 217 BC at the battle of Raphia, he visited Jerusalem and the Second Temple. However, he is miraculously prevented from entering the building. This leads him to hate the Jews and upon his return to Alexandria, he rounds up all the Jews in the kingdom to put them to death in his hippodrome. Those Jews who agree to abandon their faith are to be spared.<\/p>\n

An attempt to register all the Jews before their execution is thwarted by the sheer number of the Jews. Ptolemy then attempts to have the Jews killed by crushing by elephant and orders 500 elephants to be intoxicated in order to enrage them. However, the execution is repeatedly thwarted, as God first causes Ptolemy to oversleep, then causes him to miraculously forget his anger against the Jews. Ptolemy finally attempts to lead the elephants and his own army into the hippodrome to destroy the Jews personally, but after an impassioned prayer by Eleazar, God sends two angels who prevent this.<\/p>\n

Ptolemy abruptly forgets his anger with the Jews and honours them with various immunities and a banquet, with several dates being established as commemorative festivals. The Jews request and receive permission to return home and to kill all the Jews who chose to abandon their faith in order to be spared. The book includes a letter, ostensibly by Ptolemy, to this effect. Finally, the Jews return home.<\/p>\n

Critics agree that the author of this book was an Alexandrian Jew who wrote in Greek.<\/p>\n

Although some parts of the story, such as the names of the Jews taking up all the paper in Egypt, are clearly fictional, parts of the story cannot be definitively proven or disproven and many scholars are only willing to accept the first section (which tells of the actions of Ptolemy Philopator) as possibly having an historical basis. Josephus notes that many (but certainly not all) Jews were put to death in Alexandria under the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon (146\u2013117 BC) due to their support for Cleopatra II, and this execution was indeed carried out by intoxicated elephants. This may be the historical center of the relation in 3 Maccabees and the author has transferred it to an earlier time period and added an ahistorical connection to Jerusalem if this theory is correct.<\/p>\n

Another theory about the historical basis of the book was advanced by Adolf B\u00fcchler in 1899. He held that the book describes the persecution of the Jews in the Fayum region of Egypt. It is certain that the Jews abruptly changed allegiance from Egypt to Syria in 200 BC. This author presumes that the change must have been due to persecution in Egypt.<\/p>\n

The book was presumably written some time after the events it purports to describe and its use in the Orthodox Church also might suggest it was composed before the 1st century AD. It may be a product of very late Judaism or very early Christianity. One theory, advanced by Ewald and Willrich, holds that the relation is a polemic against Caligula, thus dating from around AD 40, but this theory has been rejected by more recent authors, because Ptolemy in the book does not claim divine honors as Caligula did.<\/p>\n

__<\/p>\n

4 Maccabees<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n

The book of 4 Maccabees is a homily or philosophic discourse praising the supremacy of pious reason over passion. It is not in the Bible for most churches, but is an appendix to the Greek Bible, and in the canon of the Georgian Orthodox Bible. It was included in the 1688 Romanian Orthodox and the 18th-century Romanian Catholic Bibles where it was called “Iosip” (Joseph). It is no longer printed in the Romanian Bibles today.<\/p>\n

The work consists of a prologue and two main sections; the first advances the philosophical thesis while the second illustrates the points made using examples drawn from 2 Maccabees (principally, the martyrdom of Eleazer and the Maccabeean youths) under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The last chapters concern the author’s impressions drawn from these martyrdoms. The work thus appears to be an independent composition to 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, merely drawing on their descriptions to support its thesis.<\/p>\n

It was composed originally in the Greek language, “very fluently… and in a highly rhetorical and affected Greek style.” (Stephen Westerholm).<\/p>\n

According to some scholars, the last chapter shows signs of later addition to the work, though this was disputed by the 19th century authors of the Jewish Encyclopedia. The dispute is based on the weak ending the book would have without the “added” chapter, as well as arguments based on style. The change of direction with chapter 17 supports the view of the work as a homily held before a Greek-speaking audience on the feast of Hanukkah, as advanced by Ewald and Freudenthal, where this would be a rhetorical element to draw the listeners into the discourse. Others hold that a homily would have to be based on scriptural texts, which this work is only loosely.<\/p>\n

In style, the book is oratorical, but not so much as 3 Maccabees. What can be interpreted as Stoic philosophy is cited by the author, though there is little original philosophical insight in the text. Although its Hellenistic Jewish nature assumes an origin in Alexandria, its interest in martyrs in Antioch and its similarity to writings in modern Turkey point to an origin in the northeast Mediterranean. Regarded as Jewish literature, it is cited[by whom?] as the best example of syncretism between Jewish and Hellenistic thought.<\/p>\n

The book is ascribed to Josephus by Eusebius and Jerome, and this opinion was accepted for many years, leading to its inclusion in many editions of Josephus’ works. Scholars have however pointed to perceived differences of language and style. The book is generally dated between 20 and 130 CE, likely in the later half of that range.
\nDoctrinal content<\/p>\n

The writer believes in the immortality of the soul, but never mentions the resurrection of the dead. Good souls are said to live forever in happiness with the patriarchs and God, but even the evil souls are held to be immortal. The suffering and martyrdom of the Maccabees is seen by the author to be vicarious for the Jewish nation, and the author portrays martyrdom in general as bringing atonement for the past sins of the Jews.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Texts witnessed only in the Septuagint: Table of Contents [Edited by Ellopos from Wikipedia articles.] 1 Maccabees The original Hebrew of this book is lost and the most important surviving version is the Greek translation contained in the Septuagint. The book is held as canonical scripture by the Catholic, Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches (except […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":"","_disable_autopaging":false},"categories":[6702,8,317,11,5766,10],"tags":[332,94,100,101],"class_list":["post-4514","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-thechrist","category-church-of-greece","category-greek-language","category-elpenor-greek-library","category-greek-religion","category-orthodox-christianity","tag-bible","tag-new-testament","tag-old-testament","tag-septuagint"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4514","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4514"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4514\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4514"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4514"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ellopos.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4514"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}